Burris PSY496 Final Project
Literature Review
Introduction
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Psychology is the discipline that efforts to unravel meaning. Behavior is the end result of a complex process of thoughts, choice, judgment, subjective experience, and fundamental beliefs. For example, if a cold wind blows and a person shivers, then puts on a jacket, the behavior can be interpreted as a response to the environment. So too the mind (cognitive faculties) is impacted and responds to forces of the environment, ultimately culminating in choice and behavior.
The advent of digital technologies (referred to as the Information Era) and network communications (referred to as social media) impacts the human psyche in profound ways. Much is still a mystery as to the effects digital culture has on individuals, but more is being learned every day. A brief review of the current research literature is useful for gauging points of interest concerning the effects of technologies and social media, as well as for defining psychological applications in technology design concepts and future research.
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To gather a well-rounded perspective that assesses the scope of interests surrounding perceptional influencers within this area of research, a brief overview of recent publications can enlighten reader to current issues and concerns stemming from many diverse avenues of digitally-integrated culture. Self-perception and identify is said to be impacted, a catalyst for deception is said to be formed, and the cultivation of risky sexual behaviors all present serious warnings for technology users everywhere.​
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Literature Reviews
Simulated Identities: Social Media and the Reconcilation of the Real and Ideal
Gizem Kiziltunali, Ph.D., (2016) has looked at the nature of communication via social media as it represents the identity of the user. He states, "One of the basic qualities of social media is that it is self-generated [...] [it] 'describes a variety of new sources of online information that are created, initiated, circulated and used by consumers intent on educating each other about products, [], services, [and] personalities,'" (Blackshaw & Nazzaro, 2004, p. 2, as cited by Kiziltunali, 2016, section 3, para. 1). The primary focus of these observations articulate the impact various aspects of the media have on behavior (Kiziltunali, 2016). An apt description might be a "Cut-and-Paste-Edited" version of the self. Relational dynamics have been redefined and according to the individual user's preferences. Though, relational and personal boundaries are not new ideas, and are healthy practices to engage, social media is enabling a new means of self-representation (2016). Sociologically, everyone is both the actor and the audience of daily activities they experience. Ultimately, what Kiziltunali (2016) has discovered is the deconstruction of the actual/physical identify, and the reconstruction of a virttual/ideal one (section 4).
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In order to draw his conclusions, Kiziltunali (2016) randomly asked a hundred people to participate in a survey. Participants were chosen regardless of gender, age, education, or ethnicity, and were only selected based on whether or not they were active users of social media (paraphrased from section 5, para. 1). Ten questions were posed to participants that attempted to ascertain the legitimacy of identity deconstruction/reconstruction. Participants were asked if information they had ever posted to social media would lead to misconceptions about their actual identity, if they thought/knew that others were misleading in their identity representations, if identities or personalities aligned with how an individual hoped to portray him/herself, and whether or not social media is trustworthy in terms of the notion of identity (to name but a few of the questions)? The data was gathered and reviewed over the course of a month and presented interesting findings.
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"According to the results, it is ironic that most of the participants denied to have lied in social media regarding their identities (59%), while the same percentage of answers (59%) was obtained when they were asked if they have seen others lie in social media," (Kiziltunali, 2016, section 5, para. 3). Though this was a theoretical analysis that attempted to distinguish the various views social media users held regarding their real-life vs. on-line identities, conclusive data suggests the nature of the medium serves as a platform by which users are able to add to or subtract from their actual identities, thereby generating a "pseudo-identity" that is based on the desired self-concept of the individual (2016). "Even though technological identities are merely a simulation, they are a mirroring of what we long to be," (2016, section 7, para. 1).
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The Use of Texting as a Medium for Deception Among College-Age Texters
Communication is an integral and inherent dimension within social media contexts. Texting, SMS (Short Message Service), Facebook Messenger, are all examples of these communication mediums that have given rise to concerns of moral and emotional perceptions (Craig, Perez, & Gatesman, 2016).
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Researchers found "The use of deception has been identified in many forms of technology-based communications including email, instant messaging, and social networking sites [...] deception is SMS comes with unique elements that are not commonly found in many other online or even face-to-face communications," (Craig, Perez, & Gatesman, 2016, section 2, para. 2). Social interactions and relationship facilitation appear to be the primary drivers that make the prospect of deception acceptable to users.
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A study surveyed 195 undergraduates enrolled in psychology courses in order to understand how students use SMS for deceptive purposes (paraphrased from Craig et al, 2016). "A thirty-eight question survey sought to ascertain the frequency of SMS use, the nature and frequency of lies told in conversation, and related emotional components linked with the act of deception," (summarized from Craig et al, 2016, section 2, para. 3). Results of the survey furnished interesting findings.
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Of the 195 participants, 193 reported using SMS for communication (Craig et al, 2016). Participant ages ranged from eighteen to fifty-one years, with a mean age of 19.98 (2016, section 3). 70.5% were female and 29.5 were male, indicating a gender component to be inserted as a variable in future studies (section 3, para. 2). More than eighty percent of the participants reported using SMS as a deceptive device, most commonly toward casual friends (Craig, et al, 2016). The experimental survey also produced data that revealed the subjective significance of the lie, which grants some insight into the nature of online social dynamics in the context of this communications platform. "The most prevalent lies regarded what the texter was doing at the time and not wanting to do something with the text recipient," (2016, section 4, para. 3).
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Based on participant responses, the researchers conclude that, "When lying, individuals more often lie about what they were doing or to avoid doing something with the person with whom they were texting. This is consistent with the notion of "Butler lies" intended to maintain social relationship," (Birnholtz, et al., 2010; French, Smith, Birnholtz, & Hancock, 2015 as cited by Craig et al, 2016, section 5, para. 1). Cognitive dissonance appears to present itself linked with acts of deception, as well as the impact is has on those being lied to. Participant reports suggested the medium lacked any standard of accountability that would have existed in face-to-face communications, and therefore justified deception as a means of maintaining social relationships. Further still, findings additionally suggest that such "SMS deception also correlated with increased negative beliefs about the impact of SMS deception," (section 5, para. 3). Whereas face-to-face deception was viewed as unethical, perceptions regarding SMS deception tended to intensify negative beliefs about the act, the emotional impact from telling a lie, and that the deceiver showed more concern for their own emotions that for those of the one to whom they lied (summarized from Craig et al, 2016, section 5, para. 3).
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Music's Influence on Risky Sexual Behaviors: Examining the Cultivation Theory
Music has taken full advantage of the technologically-enhanced digital era, allowing individuals to enjoy listening virtually anywhere at any time. Chrysalis Wright, Ph.D., (2015) sought to examine the relationship between sexual content in music lyrics and videos and the actual sexual behaviors of emerging adults from a cultivation (socialization) framework (Wright, 2015). There is disagreement among professionals and researchers as to the exact nature of influence of music in modern culture. Some argue there are no sustainable examples that support behavioral influence due to music media, while still others contend the nature of perception is affected by popular music imagery.
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Wright (2015) considered the nature of sexual content contained in pop titles/genres and the listening habits of adolescents and young adults. "Healthcare professionals show concern that repeated exposure to such content obscures the line between reality and fiction for listeners, taking into consideration current trends in risky sexual behaviors," (Agbo-Quaye & Robertson, 2010 as cited by Wright, 2015, section 1, para. 3).
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Wright argues from a theoretical perspective that is grounded in cultivation theory, which "looks at how the media influences perception of reality and states that the more a person is exposed to the media, the more a person begins to believe that what they are exposed to is normal or real," (Gerbner et al, 1994 as cited by Wright, 2015, section 3, para. 1). According to this theory, studies are being designed to assess the association between sexual content in music lyrics and videos and actual risky sexual behavior among emerging adults. Wright (2015) hypothesizes:
"It may be that musicians create a false reality regarding sexual activity and the potential negative effects of engaging in risky sexual behaviors based on how they endorse such behaviors through in their lyrics and videos (Beullens, Roe, & Van, 2012). Listeners are then more likely to make decisions, adopt thinking processes, and behave similar to the content contained in the music they are exposed to, (Knobloch-Westerwick, Musto, & Shaw, 2008; Kohn, 1969; 1983 as cited by Wright, 2015, section 3, para. 2).
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Former research examined the nature of perceptional influence with music both with and without video/image stimulation. Studies conducted show conflicting results, however, do offer conclusive indicators that move in the direction of supporting cultivation theory. Gender roles are typically affected, as well as expectations regarding sexual activity, initiation, and the permissiveness of such activity (summarized from Wright, 2015, section 6). Results determined that an association exists between sexual music content and sexual activity of emerging adults. Ethnic backgrounds and age highlighted important cultural patterns that could be used as markers when gathering data specifically aimed at assessing the likelihood that exposure to sexually charged music affects cognitive processes and decision making.
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References
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Craig, R., Perez, A. & Gatesman, B. (2016). The Use of Texting as a Medium for Deception Among College-Age Texters. Media Psychology Review. Vol. 10(1). Retrieved from http://mprcenter.org/review/the-use-of-texting-as-a-medium-for-deception-among-college-age-texters/
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Kiziltunali, G.. (2016). Simulated Identities: Social Media and the Reconciliation of the Real and Ideal. Media Psychology Review. [Online] Vol 10(1). Retrieved from http://mprcenter.org/review/simulated-identities-social-media-and-the-reconciliation-of-the-real-and-ideal/
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Wright, C.L., & Craske, M. (2015). Music’s Influence on Risky Sexual Behaviors: Examining the Cultivation Theory. Media Psychology Review. Vol. 9(1). Retrieved from http://mprcenter.org/review/musics-influence-on-risky-sexual-behaviors-examining-the-cultivation-theory/